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Alms Food

º As has been mentioned above, the Buddha said that there were four necessities of life: clothing, food, shelter and medicine.

The Buddha suggested that the basic source of food for bhikkhus was that received on the morning alms round (pi.n.dapaata). This daily dependence on alms food reminds both the bhikkhus and the lay devotees of their interdependence and prevents the bhikkhu from becoming too isolated from the lay community. He 'meets' them every day and eats the food that they share with him. Several important rules are concerned with this as well as a major section of the Sekhiya Training rules. (See below; see also story about Ven. Assaji.)

An alms round is not considered begging, for the bhikkhu does not solicit anything but is ready mindfully to receive any alms that lay people may wish to give. Although alms food may sometimes be meager, the bhikkhu is always expected to be grateful for whatever he is given. It is surprising how particular we can be about what food we like to eat; and what complications that can cause. This is reflected in the way rules concerning 'edibles' are arranged, which may seem very complex especially when the bhikkhu's life is supposed to be so simple. It should be borne in mind that the rules often deal with extraordinary circumstances and try to prevent them from becoming the norm.

Begging for Food

When the 'group-of-six' monks in the Buddha's time solicited 'special foods' and ate them themselves, the lay people criticized this saying, "Who isn't fond of good food and sweets?" The Buddha therefore laid down this rule:

"There are these finer staple foods, i.e., ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses, fish, meat, fresh milk, and curds. Should any bhikkhu who is not ill, having asked for finer staple foods such as these for his own sake, then eat them, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 39; BMC p.367)

"There are sumptuous foods, namely foods mixed with ghee, butter, oil, honey, molasses, fish, meat, milk and curd; and a monk who, though not sick, asks for such sumptuous foods for himself and eats them commits [an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 39; BBC p.127)

The ancient commentators suggest that these 'finer foods' are actually made when one mixes rice, for example, with butter or fish, etc.

An exception is made for a monk who is ill, and a bhikkhu can ask for special food for the sake of a fellow monk who is sick. (He is always allowed to ask a relative or someone who has offered a Pavaara.naa Invitation.

Receiving and Eating Food

A whole section of the seventy-five Sekhiya Training guidelines is concerned with how a bhikkhu receives and eats his alms food. Although 'table manners' may differ from country to country, and from age to age, these Sekhiya rules still largely conform to what is considered good manners:

"I will receive alms food appreciatively." (Sekhiya 27)
"When receiving alms food, I will focus my attention on the bowl." (Sekhiya 28)

º This explains why the bhikkhu may not look at the donor when accepting food — he is concentrating on properly receiving it.

"I will receive/eat (bean-)curries in the right proportion to the rice." (Sekhiya 29/34)

It is suggested that this was laid down so that bhikkhus on alms round would not pass by people offering plain rice in favor of better quality food. (See EV,I,p.211)

"I will receive alms food only until it reaches the rim of the bowl." (Sekhiya 30)

º However, on festival or special occasions the bhikkhu's bowl may be emptied so that everyone who wants to join in offering has the opportunity.

"I will eat alms food attentively." (Sekhiya 31)
"When eating alms food, I will look only into the bowl." (Sekhiya 32)

º This is also why the bhikkhu should not be expected to talk while he is eating, for this will distract his attention.

"I will not cover up curries or other food with rice out of a desire to get more." (Sekhiya 36)

If donors think that the monk has only plain rice in his bowl, they may give him some 'better' food.

"When I am not sick, I will not ask for curries or rice for my own benefit." (Sekhiya 37)

Other Sekhiya rules seem aimed at bhikkhus eating from their bowl using their fingers in the traditional way of India:

"I will not make up an overlarge mouthful of food; nor open my mouth until the portion of food has been brought to it; nor put my fingers into my mouth; nor speak with my mouth full.
"I will not eat: stuffing out my cheeks; shaking my hand about; scattering grains of rice about; putting out my tongue; making a champing sound; (or drink) making a sucking sound; licking my hands; scraping the bowl; licking my lips. I will not take hold of a vessel of water with my hand soiled with food." (Sekhiya Section; see End Note 75.)

Meal Time

In the West the first meal of the day is 'break-fast.' For the bhikkhu this is literally true, for he will not have taken any food since the previous morning. Food intake is limited to the hours between dawn and noon. The practice of not eating in the afternoon is a very old tradition mentioned in the earliest Suttas. It is also included in the Ten Precepts of the novice (saama.nera) and dasasiila mata nun; and the Eight Precepts of the lay devotee [see End Note 4].

'Food' here refers to things like cooked grains; sweets made from flour, beans, etc.; fish; meat; fresh milk and sour milk;... fruits, tubers and all 'main course' foods. (See EV,II, pp.131-133)

When these staple foods go beyond their time limit (i.e., after noon) a bhikkhu will incur an offence if he consumes them. The original story shows the complications that can arise from leaving the monastery at the wrong time:

The 'group-of-seventeen' bhikkhus — another set of frequent misdoers — went out one afternoon to enjoy themselves at a festival outside the city. When lay people saw them they gave them a meal and food to take back to the monastery. The Buddha therefore laid down this rule:

"Should any bhikkhu chew or consume staple or non- staple food at the wrong time, it is [an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 37; BMC p.362)

º This 'wrong time' is defined to be from noon until dawn the following day. A bhikkhu is still at fault even if he genuinely miscalculates the time or mistakes an item of 'food' for a 'medicine.' Therefore if donors are preparing food for a bhikkhu they should be careful that they are not late in offering it so that the meal can be finished before noon. It is also noteworthy that an ill bhikkhu has no exemption from this rule so he likewise should not take food in the afternoon.

The Four Sorts of Edibles

Any nutriment that a bhikkhu puts into his mouth is classified in four groups, which specify the time limits during which he can consume or store them:

• (i) Food — Limited from Dawn to Noon (Yaavakaalika)
• (ii) Fruit juices — Limited to One Day (Yaamakaalika)
• (iii) Medicinal-tonics — Limited to Seven Days (Sattaahakaalika)
• (iv) Other Medicines — For All One's Life (Yaavajiivika)

Mixing Edibles

When different kinds of 'edibles' are mixed, their category will usually change to that with the shortest life span. For example, ginger can be used as a herbal 'lifetime' medicine for stomach ailments. However, grated-ginger that has been used for food preparation is classed as 'food' and therefore should not be kept overnight or used as a medicine. Likewise, if honey is used as a solvent or base for herbal medicines, because the honey has a seven-day limit, that lifetime (herbal) medicine becomes a seven-day medicine.

º This is another reason that bhikkhus may be careful about the ingredients of medicines that are offered. When offering 'medicines' the donor should try to be aware of what the bhikkhu considers allowable and what will cause him to fall into offence.

Offering 'Edibles'

We have already mentioned the bhikkhu's alms round and his dependence on receiving food from lay supporters. But how is the gift made and how is it properly received? This is accomplished in quite a formal way yet it can still be confusing to lay devotees for different monks receive an offering in slightly different ways.

The rule that explains about formally having to make an offering to bhikkhus arose when a certain bhikkhu lived in a charnel ground, wearing robes made from rags collected from there. He also subsisted on the food left for 'departed spirits' by relatives of the dead person. The lay people criticized him, wrongly suspecting he might also be feeding on human flesh so the Buddha set down this rule:

"Should a bhikkhu take into his mouth an edible that has not been given — except for water and tooth-cleaning sticks — it is [an offence of Confession.]"(Paac. 40; BMC p.370)
"A monk who puts in his mouth, any nutriment, which has not been proffered to him, commits [a Confession offence.]" (Paac. 40; BBC p.127)

How to make an Offering

Present day practice regarding this rule (Paac. 40 above) varies so much because of the intricacy of interpretation. However, usually, anything that goes into the mouth — food or 'medicines' — should be properly given. That means it should be:

(a) given by means of the body, (e.g., given by hand), or by something attached to the body, (e.g., a spoon), or by throwing, (e.g., tossing a lump of sticky rice into the bowl).

(b) given so that the donor and the bhikkhu are (literally) within arms reach (1.25 metres) of each other.

(c) received by means of the body, (e.g., received in the hand) or by something attached to the body, (e.g., the monk's bowl or, in Thailand, the monk's receiving cloth).

The Commentaries then further expand the details of the correct way that food should be given:

(d) the offered food should not be so heavy that an average size man cannot lift it.

In many communities this has led to the food having to be literally lifted into the monk's hands or onto his receiving cloth. The Commentary allows it to be slid along the floor or table into the monk's hands.

(e) the donor must actually move the food (on a tray, for example) towards the bhikkhu, (i.e., the bhikkhu does not reach out for it first).

This has also been understood as meaning that the donor makes a gesture (of respect) when making the offering. (This has to be balanced with the Sekhiya Training rule where it is the monk who should "be appreciative and attentive when receiving food.") However, in the West, this gesture of respect may be taken according to local custom. (See BMC p.375)

In some monasteries food is not considered properly given if the lay person wears shoes or sandals when offering to a barefooted bhikkhu. Also, in some communities, when properly offered food is touched again or moved by lay people, even accidentally, it has to be re-offered.

º The major point to remember is that in offering food (or anything edible) to a monk there is a formal way of doing so — otherwise the bhikkhu may not be able to eat it. Once one gets used to this interaction with the monk, it becomes quite a meaningful gesture.

Storing Food

After formally receiving food, a bhikkhu is not allowed to store it away for another day. This is another rule that supports the mendicant ideal and the interdependence of monk and lay person, and stops the bhikkhu from becoming attached to his favorite tastes.

The case originally arose when a monk coming back from alms round would eat some food and then dry any remaining rice in the sun to store for the next days' meals. In this way he did not have to go on an alms round every day. It can be summarized:

"Eating food that a bhikkhu — oneself or another — formally received on a previous day is [an offence of Confession.]" (Paac. 38; BMC p.367)

After the daily meal — often the monks of the community will gather to share this — all that day's excess food may be distributed among whoever is present so that nothing is wasted or left over. Lay people themselves are also allowed to deposit food in the properly approved storeroom so that it can be offered to the monks on another day. If the lay people store it there, the monks will not be counted as having formally received it. (So the formal act of offering also serves the purpose of determining whether food can be stored or not.)

Meal Invitations

It is traditional for lay devotees on special occasions to invite bhikkhus to go and have a meal at their house. This is normally a very straightforward matter and the bhikkhu(s) will explain if they are able to go on that particular day. To show some aspects from the Buddha's time, there are these rules:

º The origin of this first rule displays the care that a bhikkhu should take when accepting such an invitation.

A poor workman was inspired to invite the Buddha and all the bhikkhus of the town for a meal, and he insisted they still come even when the Buddha cautioned him about the large number of monks involved. Some bhikkhus assumed that he would not be able to afford very much food so they first went on an alms round and ate beforehand. Therefore when they came to go for the poor man's meal they could not eat very much — even though there was in fact plenty of food because other people had helped to support the poor workman's faith by sending round donations of food. The poor workman became upset saying, "How can you eat elsewhere... am I not competent to give sufficient?"

The rule is summarized:

"Eating a meal before going to another meal to which one was invited, or accepting an invitation to one meal and eating elsewhere instead, is [an offence of Confession] except when one is ill or at the time of giving cloth or making robes." (Paac. 33; BMC p.352)

º Should a bhikkhu seem somewhat reluctant to accept your invitation, be aware that he may not be able to change his acceptance of a previous invitation. There is, however, an allowance for the bhikkhu to 'share' or transfer his invitation to another bhikkhu or novice so that he can accept a new one. Even so, it is considered good manners first to contact the original donors about this.

Another, rather obscure, rule about meal invitations originated like this:

Ven. Devadatta attempted to take over the Sa"ngha and then tried to kill the Buddha. The Sa"ngha informed the local inhabitants about Ven. Devadatta's behavior so that it would not reflect on the Sa"ngha as a whole. Ven. Devadatta then found alms so difficult to obtain that he solicited alms — "having asked and asked" — (for all his group) and the lay people criticized them for such unseemly conduct.

It seems that this rather enigmatic rule may forbid bhikkhus from accepting an invitation to a 'group meal' of four or more specified monks at a donor's house when the whole local community is not invited — as would have been more normal in the Buddha's days. This would then have avoided the forming of cliques inside a community. (See BMC p.342-348)

The Buddha therefore laid down that:

"Eating a meal to which four or more individual bhikkhus have been specifically invited — except on special occasions — is [an offence of Confession.]" (Summary Paac. 32; BMC p.348)

Another interpretation of this obscure rule requires that bhikkhus do not accept the invitations of those who mention the names of the foods to be offered. The inviter who understands this, makes invitation just in this way: "I invite you to receive alms-food," or, "I invite you to take breakfast... or lunch." By speaking in this way it is possible for bhikkhus to accept." (Paat. 1969 Ed.; p161)

º If the community lives by this second interpretation, one should be careful when inviting bhikkhus for a meal not to mention the specific food that one intends to offer.

Meat-eating

In western countries vegetarianism has recently increased in popularity and this has led to some questioning about bhikkhus and meat-eating. (In less materially developed countries the question is more about 'what, if anything, is there to eat?')

The question of monks' eating meat is an old one that was originally raised by the 'renegade monk' Ven. Devadatta. He asked the Buddha to prohibit bhikkhus from eating fish and flesh in what seems was a ploy to take over the leadership of the Sangha. (The 'stricter ascetic' tactic.) The Buddha had already made a strict rule for both bhikkhus and lay people about not taking life (see Killing.) so He did not agree to Ven. Devadatta's new formulation.

The Buddha did allow bhikkhus to eat meat and fish except under the following circumstances:

If a bhikkhu sees, hears or suspects that it has been killed for him, he may not eat it. (M.I,369)

If a bhikkhu is given meat on alms round and he has no knowledge about how the animal died he has to 'receive it with attentiveness.'
(See the Sekhiya Trainings.)

He should be grateful and recollect that the food he is given is what enables him to continue to live the bhikkhu life, and that as a mendicant he is not in a position to choose what he gets. If he later comes to know the family and they ask him about Dhamma, he will be able to explain the precept about not killing. This may cause them to reflect on their attitude to meat eating.

An individual lay person can choose whether to be a vegetarian. Problems usually arise only when vegetarians want to impose their choice on others, and as meal times are normally a family or shared affair this can create tensions and misunderstandings.

An individual bhikkhu who lives on alms food cannot make such choices. Often the donors are unknown — perhaps not even Buddhist, or just starting to find out about Dhamma — and to refuse their generosity may so offend them that they never have anything to do with Dhamma again.

Finally it comes down to the lay people who go to the market to buy food to give to the bhikkhus. If they are vegetarian themselves or like to give vegetarian food, then the bhikkhu should receive that food with 'appreciation' — especially if it means that fewer animals are being slaughtered. Nevertheless, it should not become a political issue where other people are attacked for their behavior.

Offering Fruit: Kappiya

At the time of the Buddha, some lay people complained that the monks had destroyed the 'life' in seeds. (See also about 'one-facultied life,' above.) Destroying seeds therefore became a minor (dukka.ta) offence, and the monk had to ask the lay people whether they found it 'allowable' for him to eat certain fruits.

Fruits with seeds that can germinate and roots (bulbs, tubers) that can be planted again should be made 'allowable' or kappiya for bhikkhus. An unordained person can do this by touching it with fire, by drawing a knife over it, or by marking it with a finger nail.

In some monasteries, there is a ceremony — briefly mentioned in the actual Vinaya but given in detail in the Commentaries — where the lay person offering the fruit, makes it 'allowable' for the bhikkhu to eat. For example, this may be done with an orange by slightly cutting the peel when the monk says, "Kappiya.m karohi" ("Make this allowable") and answering him with, "Kappiya.m Bhante" ("It is allowable, Ven. Sir."). If there are many oranges, and if they are all together and touching, making one fruit allowable makes them all allowable. (In other communities, if the donor offers fruit already 'damaged' (e.g., peeled or cut) it is considered already allowable.)

There is no need for this ceremony with seedless fruit, with fruit if the seeds are unripe so that they cannot regenerate, and with fruit offered already cut with all the seeds removed. Also, if the bhikkhu carefully eats certain sorts of fruits — for instance, mangoes, jackfruit, plums, peaches, prunes, etc. — without damaging the seed, stone, pit or pips, there is no offence.

Food in the Wilderness

The following rule again shows the interdependence and care which must be cultivated between bhikkhus and those who support them.

In the Buddha's time some ladies were ambushed and raped on their way to give food to bhikkhus living in a dangerous jungle area. Their family criticized the bhikkhus for not warning them of the hazards. If lay people intend to give food to a bhikkhu(s) in such a danger zone then they must announce that to the bhikkhu(s) beforehand so that the bhikkhu(s) has a chance to warn them or reduce the threat. The rule can be summarized:

"Eating an unannounced gift of staple or non-staple food, after accepting it in a dangerous wilderness abode when one is not ill is [an offence of Acknowledgement.]" (Paatidesaniya 4; BMC p.488)

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Редакция перевода от 25.08.2014 15:18